Improving Traditional Irrigation in Tanzania

In 1986/87, an inventory of traditional irrigation systems in Tanzania revealed a condition of immanent collapse due to over-exploitation of forests and uncontrolled cultivation of steep mountain slopes. Traditional rules on land and water management, which had been effective for many generations, were gradually undermined by national laws. Although traditional irrigation systems continued to be the main supplier to the local markets, in some areas production decreased from four crops per annum to two or even one.

At the time of the inventory study in 1986/87, the traditional sector still accounted for 80% of actual irrigated area in Tanzania. The study's recommendation was to launch the Traditional Irrigation Improvement Program (TIIP) with the long term objective of a "durable improvement of the standard of living of the population in the traditional irrigation areas in Tanzania, through improvement of irrigation practice, combined with soil and water conservation."

A unique aspect of the project proposal within the Tanzanian set up at that time was that it was to be a district- (local authority) based project. The project idea was developed with assistance from Dutch Development Cooperation (DGIS) where financing of a pilot phase was obtained for the years 1988 - 1992. The second phase of the project lasted from 1992 - 1997. A third phase has just started, its aim being to further the ownership role of the Water User Groups (WUGs) and district councils.

The conceptual framework of the project emphasized self-help activities as an essential aspect of sustainable improvement of irrigated agriculture, not only in irrigation but also

agroforestry and soil and water conservation. Indigenous methods of working together to assist each other (Kiwili Groups) were successfully revived. Irrigation was regarded as the driving force behind self-help (labor contribution) in irrigation communities. Low cost interventions were emphasized in the pilot phase, with the aim to minimize the donor's contribution as much as possible in favor of local contributions.

Special attention was focused on female-headed households and female-user members who, due to gender biases, faced additional constraints. In general, the TIIP target group was found to be situated in a wide and complex context because (1) irrigation farmers are dependent on community institutions beyond the immediate irrigation system boundaries, and (2) irrigation systems are usually part of a larger catchment, with important linkages to upstream land use and downstream demands.

In view of this complexity, TIIP selected partner groups within single catchment areas. During the pilot phase (1988 - 1992), the project had a strong environmental focus. In the second phase of the project (1992 - 1997) emphasis shifted more towards people-centered concerns, including capacity building of the target user groups.

The Change Process

Acceptance of the TIIP project as a district-based activity in the mid-1980s was greatly facilitated by the revival of Local Authorities in Tanzania (Local Authority Act 1984). This was necessary, not only in providing a legal framework for the functioning of the project, but also in providing technical criteria for setting policies on land and agricultural land use. Even more important, however, were the processes of change in the institutional outlook of TIIP's target group.

At the time the project started, the local society was dominated by the village government, the lowest level of government presence. This was an outcome of villagization and socialization policies since independence. TIIP therefore designed its interventions on the basis of three-way cooperation among the village government, the District Council and TIIP. Problems were immediately encountered with the village governments who regarded the irrigation schemes as their own property, and tended to obstruct the project in order to maintain patronage and dependency relations.

In response to this situation, TIIP emphasized the concept of Water User Groups (WUGs) rather than villages. By the middle of the second phase (1995), the WUG concept was successful and gained further momentum from government policy reforms introduced in the 1990s. These reforms included a new Cooperative Act, the introduction of multi-party democracy, and the government's active encouragement of private sector development. These reforms gave more possibilities for WUGs to become self-sustaining economic entities which managed their own natural resources, especially water.

The Outcome

The outcome of TIIP interventions included a decline in water distribution conflicts, an increase in water availability in several areas, and an intensification of horticultural production. There have also been environmental benefits of rehabilitated catchments with greater water infiltration. Creating effective local ownership of the project's approach, however, may require the establishment of a new NGO designed to continue the work of TIIP with local resources. Two important tasks of the NGO would be to expand the program into more districts and to strengthen the catchment-level intermediary organizations. The role of these organizations would include (1) lobbying for policies to attract mountain dwellers into the lowlands and (2) advising the district councils.

Lessons Learned

Most of the project's interventions have been geared towards improving the efficiency, both at farm level (LPS, terracing to enhance infiltration) and at system levels (canal lining, lintakes, distribution boxes). At the catchment level, the TIIP experience has proved that, in the case of highland groups, efforts of a single WUG cannot be economically viable, unlike in the lowlands where groups and command areas are bigger. To gain real benefits, it is necessary to establish catchment organizations.

Finally, an important lesson has centered around marketing constraints which can frustrate the motivation of local communities in managing and properly using their natural resources, especially soil and water. However, highland communities (where conservation should start) are often situated in areas with problematic road infrastructure. Therefore, efforts to work towards a new institutional arrangement need to take into consideration these very practical aspects.

Raphael Burra
Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania