Aflaj Irrigation Systems

Aflaj definition, distribution, and history

Agriculture of Oman is almost fully dependent on irrigation for agricultural production, because most crop producing areas receive only between 100 to 200 mm of rainfall annually. Oman has 4,112 falaj. 3,017 are live falaj producing water about 680 x 106 m3/year of which 410 x 106 m3/year are used. A Falaj (singular of aflaj) is a canal system, which provides water for a community of farmers for domestic and/or agricultural use. The term falaj is derived from an ancient Semitic root, which has the meaning to divide, hence the water shares in aflaj is divided between the owners. The local nomenclature of the falaj implies the system as a whole.

A farming community manage the falaj system. Each farmer has his own share of water depending on the size of his owned farming land(s) and his contribution in constructing the falaj. Aflaj vary in size; the smaller ones owned by a single family to the larger ones having hundreds of owners. Although most aflaj in Oman are fully owned by farmers, there are some aflaj owned, fully or partially, by the government. In every falaj, there are some water shares not owned by individuals but allocated for the community. The value of these shares allocated for falaj service, mosques, emergencies, etc. Many villages and towns in Oman have more than one falaj system; for example, the town of Samail has 16 different aflaj systems.

The falaj system started in Oman about 2000 year ago. It is known as the Qanat in Iran where it started about 700 B.C. Comparable systems still exist in many parts of the world e.g. Afghanistan (Kariz), Algeria (Foggara), Canary Islands (Galerias), China (Kanjing, Karez), Italy (Ingruttato), Japan (Mambo, Mappo), Korea (Man-nan-po), Latin America (Galerias), Morocco (Khattara, Rhettara), Yemen (Felledj).

Falaj water utilization

The aflaj systems are arranged in such a way that domestic use is primary and agricultural use is secondary. In most aflaj, water is first allocated for drinking, then water will pass through mosques, forts, men's public baths, women's public baths, and then to the area for washing dishes and clothes respectively (see Figure 2). After domestic use, falaj is utilized first to irrigate the permanent cultivated lands, mostly date palms, and then the seasonal cultivated lands, called awabi. This arrangement helps farmers to control drought. If falaj has more flow rate, then more lands will be cultivated with seasonal crops, such as wheat, tomato and onion in down stream of the system. However, if drought occurs farmers cut the area of seasonal crops. If falaj available water exceeds farmers need, water is allowed to be drained out of the system. Aflaj systems may also be used for industrial and domestic needs.

Falaj administration

Typical large Omani falaj administration consists of a director, wakil, two assistants, arifs, one for underground services and the other for above ground services, banker, qabidh, or amin aldaftar, and labor, bayadir.

The Wakil is in charge of the overall administration of the falaj. He is the Executive Director of the falaj. For example, he is in charge of water distribution, water rent, expenditure of falaj budget, solving water conflicts between farmers, emergencies and other decision-making activities. The arifs are foremen of the falaj. They follow wakil's directions and lead the labor, bayadir. Arif can be in charge of timing irrigation in the filed. The qabidh's (Amin al-Daftar) job is controlling the falaj income, which comes from special water shares, land, and/or crops located for the falaj. He is also in charge of updating the falaj transaction book, giving an annual report to the falaj owners, and following the wakil's directions.

Some portion of the aflaj water is rented periodically in one or both of two ways, in short intervals, like 7-14 days and called Maqudah or every one-year and called Mazyoudah. Auctioneer, Dallal, controls these events.

Depending on the size of the falaj system, falaj can have all of the above administration or some but at the very least should have a wakil.

The owners of the falaj (land and water owners) chose the wakil from the village citizens. He should be a person with a respected personality, honest, can read, write, and perform simple calculations. The head of the village (sheikh) is assigns the wakil to his job after a recommendation from the falaj-owners.

In case of conflicts, either the Wakil or the owners can complain to the sheikh. If the sheikh can not solve the problem, they or the sheikh him self, will raise the matter to the governor, (wali) who is the government representative and in a position, in final way, to transfer the matter to the court to be judged by the qadhi using Islamic law. Sometimes the wakil or the owners call for an audit committee to check the income and outcome of the falaj cash flow. This committee consists usually of 3 to 4 trustees from the village (see Figure 2).

Falaj Water Distribution

Most of Omani aflaj, water distribution is done on the basis of rotational water supply - a time share called athar (30 minutes). The period of time required for irrigation dawran, usually 7 to 14 days depends on the flow ratio and soil type. A day is divided into one or two baddas. A day consists of 48 athars. The length of an athar varies during the day and night. Depending on the summer and winter season each other is divided into 24 qeyas, the lowest unit of a water share. Traditional practices of using the sun dial and stars are involved. However, the use of the modern watch has fixed an athar at 30 minutes.

The government of Oman regularly takes steps to maintain the aflaj systems.

Abdullah Al-Ghafri, Graduate School of Agriculture, Hokkaido University, Japan, E-mail: aghafri@hotmail.com